Frames of Mind. Note that educators still debate it as a scientific theory — and it is not the same thing as "learning styles."

The last one: "What are you going to do about that?" The student, not the teacher, decides how to put things right.

A (typically enslaved) household attendant who escorted children to school and supervised them — literally a "child-leader."

About two standard deviations — the average tutored student scored higher than roughly 98% of the conventionally taught students. The challenge Bloom posed: find group methods that come close.

Industry versus inferiority — children who feel competent develop confidence; those who repeatedly feel inadequate may doubt themselves.

Because the class keeps returning to it — to celebrate when everyone is living up to it, and to resolve problems when someone is not.

Formative assessment checks learning during instruction so teaching can adjust. Summative assessment measures learning at the end. A popular analogy: when the cook tastes the soup, it's formative; when the guests taste it, it's summative.

Everyone in the room — including the teacher. Students create it with the teacher's guidance and sign to show their commitment.

Concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, active experimentation — then around again.

Help students apply what they have learned — turning knowledge into something they can actually use.

The fourth one: "How do you want to treat each other when conflict occurs?" Agreeing on the repair process in advance means it is a promise, not a punishment, when the moment arrives.

To attend to each student's personal, emotional, and academic needs — to explore who the student is, not just what the student knows.

John Dewey, who argued that education should grow out of students' real experiences.

Massachusetts.

Taking a memory test improved long-term retention more than simply restudying the material — the testing effect, or retrieval practice.

Positive greetings at the door. In middle-school classrooms, the strategy produced significant improvements in academic engaged time and reductions in disruptive behavior (Cook et al., 2018).

Frank Lyman of the University of Maryland. Think on your own, Pair up to compare ideas, then Share with the class.

That a test showed they were "intellectual bloomers" about to make big gains. Younger children in that group did gain more — but the study was heavily criticized and later research found only weak effects. Still, it launched decades of research on teacher expectations.

Boston — English High School.

Horace Mann.

False, as far as the evidence shows. A major 2008 review (Pashler and colleagues) found no adequate evidence base to justify assessing learning styles and matching instruction to them.

Every student is greeted at the door with eye contact and a sincere welcome — a handshake, high-five, or hug, depending on what the student is comfortable with.

A fixed mindset (ability is set in stone) and a growth mindset (ability can be developed through effort, strategies, and feedback).

Teaching through a disciplined series of questions that leads students to examine and refine their own ideas. It's named for Socrates, as portrayed in Plato's dialogues.

Adjectives — descriptive words (think "respectful" or "kind") that set the behavior expectations for the room.

Sensorimotor (birth to ~2), Preoperational (~2–7), Concrete operational (~7–11), and Formal operational (~11 and up).

The gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with help from a teacher or more capable peer — the sweet spot for instruction.

At the start of class, students share something positive happening in their lives. It builds positivity and relationships before the lesson begins.

At the one-room schoolhouse in Stonewall, Texas where he had begun his own education.

Rudolf Steiner, at the request of the owner of the Waldorf-Astoria cigarette factory, for workers' children.

Abraham Maslow. The classroom takeaway: students whose needs for safety and belonging aren't met have a harder time focusing on learning.

Observing and imitating models — the foundation of social learning theory.

David Wood, Jerome Bruner, and Gail Ross. Support is given while a learner builds a skill, then gradually removed as the learner becomes capable on their own.

To end class on a strong note that sends students onward, prepared for whatever comes next.

Pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional — each containing two stages, for six in all.

Space it out. The spacing effect is one of the most robust findings in learning research.

1. Identify the desired results. 2. Determine acceptable evidence of learning. 3. Plan the learning experiences and instruction — the end goal comes first.

Academic success, cultural competence, and sociopolitical (critical) consciousness.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972.

"I do" (focus lesson), "We do" (guided instruction), "You do it together" (collaborative), "You do it alone" (independent).

1. What are you doing?
2. What are you supposed to be doing?
3. Are you doing that?
4. What are you going to do about that?

Assimilation fits new information into an existing mental schema. Accommodation changes the schema itself because the new information doesn't fit.

Ten. The first: begin each lesson with a short review of previous learning.

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), whose sociocultural theory says learning is shaped by social interaction and language.

Loris Malaguzzi.

d = 0.40 — the typical effect of a year of schooling. Hattie's book synthesized more than 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement.

Teachers convey care along with content — students hear that they matter in the same breath as they hear the lesson.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) — originally the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, renamed in 1990.

Direct instruction moves out of class (video lessons at home) and practice moves in (working through problems with the teacher present). Colorado teachers Jon Bergmann and Aaron Sams helped popularize it.

College Station, Texas — in the home of founder Flip Flippen. A small group of educators attended that first training in 1990.

Friedrich Froebel.

The original top level was Evaluation (after Synthesis). The 2001 revision turned the nouns into verbs and put Create at the top.

Multiple means of engagement, multiple means of representation, and multiple means of action and expression.

More than 37,000, by its own count — introduced to educators nationwide each year.

Engage · X-plore · Communicate · Empower · Launch

About one second. When wait time stretched to three to five seconds, student answers got longer, more students volunteered, and confidence rose.

Paulo Freire, in Pedagogy of the Oppressed (written in 1968; English edition 1970). He urged dialogue and problem-posing instead.

The art and science of helping adults learn — as opposed to pedagogy, which originally referred to teaching children.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, decided unanimously.

1. How do you want to be treated by the teacher?
2. How do you want to be treated by each other?
3. How do you think the teacher wants to be treated?
4. How do you want to treat each other when conflict occurs?

(Exact wording varies a little from school to school.)

Students revisit the same big ideas again and again over the years, each time at greater depth and complexity.

Memory fades fastest soon after learning unless it is reviewed — and spaced review keeps flattening the curve.

The limited capacity of working memory — we can only process a few new pieces of information at once, so instruction should avoid overloading it.

Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create.

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness — feeling in control, feeling capable, and feeling connected.

Praising effort, strategies, and progress — not fixed intelligence.

Rome — in the San Lorenzo district, for the children of working families.